James Biehle will present Science Facililties 101 – “So You Want New Science Facilities” and Science Facilities 102 – “The Architects Have Started Without Me: What Do I Do Now?” at the NSTA Kansas City Area Conference on Thursday, October 28, 2010.  Science Facilities 101 begins at 12:30 PM in Room 2503A, followed by Science Facilities 102 at 2:00 PM.

A guide to planning adequate and safe science prep and storage spaces.

Central Prep & Storage Room

While more and more science teaching spaces are designed following the recommendations of the NSTA Guide to Planning School Science Facilities, as combined lab/classrooms sized for 24 students at 60 sq. ft. per person, prep and equipment and chemical storage spaces are often neglected and provided only in whatever space may be left over in the science area. These spaces may be the only science storage areas in a school, and thus serve the dual functions of prep space and storage space. When this occurs, and the space is undersized or improperly designed, prep space loses out to storage and unsafe conditions may result.

The NSTA Guide recommends that an additional 10 sq. ft. per student be provided for prep and storage; in other words 240 sq. ft. for support of a single lab/classroom of 24 students. Careful design of this space is critical to ensure that proper facilities are provided for storage, as well as plenty of counter space, sinks, and other equipment for safe preparation of materials for demonstrations and student investigations. Here are some guidelines for adequate and successful prep and storage spaces.

Storage should have its own, well-defined area with open shelving of various heights and widths, tall cabinets, open floor space, and other specialized storage equipment. Physical science storage may need peg-board areas on a wall to store long items such as air tracks, as well as open floor space for large, heavy items (physics teachers generally have a number of neat things to demonstrate physical phenomena such as unicycles, bowling balls, crossbows, etc.). Chemistry and biology need safe, well-designed shelving and cabinets for glassware and other equipment, plus separate, well-ventilated storage rooms for chemicals. Provide floor space, possibly

Provide storage for utility carts

underneath a counter, for the carts used to transport materials from the prep/storage area to the lab/classroom, and also for the storage of various safety apparatus, such as splatter or demo shields, that may not have a home in the lab/classroom. Field equipment, including nets, waders, shovels, seines, and other equipment that may become dirty, also needs a storage place. Some schools have provided separate “mud rooms” adjacent to biology and environmental science lab/classrooms with wall hooks for waders, bins or racks for nets and other gear, a floor drain, and a hose bibb for washing down muddy items.

Science learning space is unlike other classroom space, both in terms of area and cost.

Deficiencies in these ed specs appear to stem from two sources: a lack of understanding of the activities of a modern school science program combined with the impact of the Americans With Disabilities Act on space needs, and the additional spaces required by such a program.

One typical mistake is to make the science teaching space too small.

The National Science Education Standards, published in 1996, states “Hands-on activities are not enough – students must also have ‘minds-on’ experiences. Science teaching must involve students in inquiry-oriented investigations in which they interact with their teachers and peers.” The combined lab/classroom is recommended because today’s science teaching involves moving from class discussions to hands-on activities and back again, often more than once, during a single class period. Teacher surveys and field reports have shown that significantly more hands-on science occurs in combined lab/classrooms than in facilities where the classroom area is a space separate from the lab.

The NSTA Guide to School Science Facilities makes specific recommendations as to the minimum area per student and the maximum number of students in science education spaces. For high schools, the NSTA Guide recommends a combined lab/classroom of at least 60 net square feet per student and a maximum class size of 24. Studies have shown that the “incident” or mishap rate in science teaching spaces increases significantly when the space per student is less than 60 net square feet; it also increases significantly when the student population in a lab/classroom is greater than 24.

A typical, general purpose classroom is sized in many ed specs at 900 net square feet, but following the NSTA Guide’s recommendations a lab/classroom of 24 students should be 1,440 square feet, which is 60 percent larger than a typical classroom. The recommended allowance for prep and storage space is an additional 10 square feet per student, or 240 square feet per lab/classroom. For safe science teaching, these are the minimum spaces required; in other words, each science lab/classroom and associated prep/storage space should be at least 1680 square feet.

A chemistry lab/classroom sized for 24 students at 60 SF/Student.

Typical lab/classrooms seen in recent ed specs, however, are only 1,100 square feet for a capacity of 25-28 students.

Such undersized recommendations lead to undersized budgets. Science space is significantly more expensive than general purpose classroom space due to the casework, utilities, equipment and ventilation required. If a general purpose classroom is budgeted at $100 per square foot, then science space should be budgeted at $200 per square foot, not including movable and consumable science teaching apparatus and equipment. Using these figures, a 900 square foot general purpose classroom would be budgeted at $90,000, but a science lab/classroom and associated prep/storage space should be budgeted at $336,000. It is readily apparent that ed specs which do not make this distinction will lead to budgets that cannot possibly construct the science spaces required.

Science spaces must be properly planned for and budgeted before the bond election takes place or there will be no money or space available for inquiry-based, hands-on science education activities.

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This article was originally published in the St. Louis Construction News and Review in the May/June 2004 issue.

I think we can do so by creating smaller, neighborhood buildings that are airy, light, bright and clean, and that reflect the principles of “defensible space.”

Knowing Terms
First, let’s define terms. Do I believe that an architect can produce a school that, by its design and construction, can preclude disasters like Columbine? Probably not. After all, architects and corrections experts have been trying for years to design prisons that will prevent inmates from causing harm to other inmates, yet prisons are among the most violent places in the United States. Clearly, if a disturbed individual wants to kill or incur violence, no building design will prevent this.

On the other hand, can school designs encourage pride in the school, create an atmosphere in which students are less likely to feel isolated, and form spaces that are easier to supervise? I firmly believe that the answer is a resounding “Yes!”

Assorted Groupings

In the General Accounting Office’s 1995 report on the nation’s public school facilities, deteriorating buildings accounted for much of the $112 billion in needed improvements. When students have to learn in spaces with leaky roofs, poor lighting, dirty floors and walls, and plumbing that does not work, it is easy to see how many students can assume that society places little value in them and their education. In turn, they can become hostile to their environment and, eventually, to their classmates.

Schools with thousands of students can create fringe groupings of students of the sort that were responsible for the Columbine shootings. Few of us want to be just another face in the crowd. In large groups, we often try to develop an identity that stands out because we feel lost in large, anonymous groups.

Smaller, neighborhood schools can help eliminate the feeling of anonymity. Students grow up with and know their fellow students. In much the same way, teachers can achieve a closer, more personal relationship with each student.

Bright, clean, imaginatively designed spaces that are uplifting and can create a sense of pride and ownership among students will encourage them to respect the space and what goes on within it. Recent studies indicate that natural light improves student performances and student behavior. Additional studies support the idea that “architecturally well-defined behavior settings” and environmentally healthy schools contribute to longer student attention spans and decreased interruptions.

Traditionally, the high school program, served by a fully-equipped wing of science rooms, has emphasized divisions between departments. The departmentalized model for high schools has remained the norm because construction costs are reduced when water, gas and special ventilation systems are concentrated in a single area. But as schools have grown in recent years, educators have found that large class sizes are barriers to educational goals. Many high school programs have divided their large student bodies into smaller “houses” of 500 students or less. These operate as schools-within-the-school, with faculty teams teaching only the students in their own houses.

A chemistry lab/classroom

Each house has its own classrooms for social studies, English, mathematics, and other subjects. Equipping each house with its own science area presents a considerable challenge to cost-conscious planning teams since this normally requires that gas, water, and ventilation systems be replicated in several areas of the school.

One way schools have preserved the ability to use either departmentalized or “house” models, while keeping costs down and not sacrificing quality, is by placing their science facilities at the center of a “spoke” or pod configuration (see diagram). This arrangement makes it possible to locate  either the houses or the separate departments in each wing with the science department clustered at the center. It also allows future staff to reorganize space to continue serving the student body.

Another important design consideration is clustering related facilities. Grouping science facilities together benefits both teaching and the sharing of equipment and resources. The trend toward integration with other subjects brings the additional advantage of coordinating related programs with portions of the science curriculum and energizing subjects such as mathematics and the applied sciences

Types of Science Rooms

In high school, science rooms are almost always specially designed, separate teaching spaces. As in middle schools, the increasing integration of science curricula makes it even more important to ensure that the school’s facilities do not limit the types of subjects and strategies that can be used. Given sufficient space, flexible furniture arrangements, and appropriate equipment, almost any type of science instruction can be possible in most spaces.

Some schools have designed generic laboratories that, with few exceptions, have everything necessary for any science course. This approach has the advantage of allowing curriculum changes and future enrollment growth that ay require changes in the allocation of space. Placing extra conduits for utilities in the floors and walls during construction is an easy way to provide additional flexibility for expansion and future improvements.

The two most commonly used models for science rooms are separate laboratory and classroom space and combination laboratory/classrooms. While an effective science room today is generally expected to accommodate work in all science disciplines, additional laboratories may be desired for specialized or advanced courses such as chemistry or physics that require special equipment, fixtures, ventilation, or other resources.

Space Requirements

Class size is an important design factor because it helps determine the amount of space and number of workstations needed. To accommodate current technology needs and teaching practices, a good science room will generally require:

• a minimum of 4 m2 (45 ft2) per student for a stand-alone laboratory, 100 m2 (1,080 ft2) for a class of 24 students
• a minimum of 5 m2 (60 ft2) per student for a combination laboratory/classroom, 134 m2 (1,440 ft2) for a class of 24 students.

The 1990 National Science Teachers Association position statement on laboratory science recommends a maximum class size of 24 students in high school.

An additional space of 1.4 m2 (15 ft2) is needed for each computer station and 1.8 m2 (20 ft2) for a workstation to accommodate a student with disabilities. At least 0.9 m2 (10 ft2) per student is needed for teacher preparation space, equipment storage, and separate chemical storage. Space is also needed for longer-term student projects.

A ceiling height of 3 m (10 ft) is desirable for a science room. This is particularly important for classes in physics, where some investigations may require a high ceiling, and in chemistry, where an investigation may produce clouds of smoke. Using a projection screen that is 1.8 x 2.4 m (6 x 8 ft) won’t work well in a room with a ceiling less than 2.7 m (9 ft) high because tables and desks will block the lower portions of the screen. Under no circumstances should the classroom ceiling be lower than 2.4 m (8 ft).

For safety and flexibility, a rectangular room at least 9 m (30 ft) wide, without alcoves, is recommended. The room should have at least two exits and doorways that accommodate students with physical disabilities.

The Combination Laboratory/Classroom

The combination classroom and laboratory requires a larger room, but it has several advantages over a stand-alone laboratory, including providing maximum instructional options and the most flexible use of space. The combination laboratory/classroom is more in keeping with the best practice recommendations for science instruction where laboratory activities are freely intermingled with classroom instruction.

The two most popular arrangements are:

1. A room with fixed student workstations and a separate section for classroom instruction.
2. A room that has a flexible arrangement, with utilities at the perimeter and movable tables that can form various configurations for laboratory and classroom work.

When designing either kind of room, three key principles of room layout should be observed:

• All students face the teacher when they are in the classroom area.
• Sufficient classroom space is allocated to the students so they can work safely.
• During laboratory activities, the teacher can supervise the students easily and movement around the room is not impeded. Paths for egress are a vital safety factor and must be kept clear.

In all room arrangements, there should be a minimum of 1.2 m (4 ft) between the perimeter counters and the areas for general and group seating, and at least 1.2 m around each grouping of tables. In classroom format, provide a minimum of 2.4 m from the front wall to the first tables. The teacher will then be able to easily move around and have use of a table and equipment.

A classroom area and fixed workstations. Laboratory areas with fixed student work-stations allow the teacher to easily supervise and assist students. Free standing utility islands may serve as complete workstations for four or more students. If the room is large, the islands may be installed at one end of the room. An alternative is a utility island that provides power and utilities to movable laboratory tables that serve as the primary work surfaces when pulled up to the utilities. The latter arrangement permits more flexible use of space.

Installed workstations should always allow an aisle space of at least 1.2 m between the perimeter cabinets and the rows of students.

A popular design for fixed stations is the trifacial utility island (triple table hub), as shown in the diagram. Movable tables are drawn to the three longer sides of these six-sided islands, creating work areas for students who share large, deep sinks that they access from the three narrower sides. Gas, electrical outlets, and computer date wiring can be installed at the three longer sides adjacent to the tables. Each trifacial unit can accommodate three large tables (1220 x 1370 mm [48 x 54 in]) or six small tables (530 x 1370 mm [21 x 54 in]) or (610 x 1370 mm [24 x 54 in]), and thus provide laboratory work space for 12 students.

The tables may be combined and rearranged as necessary to permit activities required in the various disciplines. Tables are available with electrical “pigtails” and outlets that plug into the hub units providing power and data wiring to the far end of the table for computers and other electrical equipment.

Fixed rectangular stations with central sinks can be modified to provide a 1.8 m (6 ft) long work surface, but these sinks are hard to cover because the faucets are in the center of the table. Both types of workstations can be equipped with sockets for apparatus rods, if desired, and outlets for computer network connections. Various storage compartments for supplies and equipment can be installed beneath the counters of these stations.

The classroom portion of the room should be as flexible as possible and provide various arrangements for student seating. Desk and chair combinations, tablet arm chairs, or tables with chairs may be used. The laboratory tables from the trifacial units can be rearranged for the classroom seating, but moving the tables takes some time.

A flexible room arrangement. In the flexible laboratory/classroom, sinks and utilities are located on perimeter counters, and students use movable flat-topped laboratory tables for both classroom and laboratory activities. This design makes the most efficient use of space and renders the room available to a variety of uses. The flexible room is also more easily modified than a laboratory/classroom with fixed workstations or service islands.

Flat-topped tables used as student workstations allow multiple arrangements and combinations for laboratory work and small-group activities that would not be possible with sloping tops.

Two tables, each seating two students on a side, form a workstation when placed together against a counter with the longer table sides perpendicular to the counter. Each group of four students has a sink, a source of heat, such as gas or a hot plate, electric power for equipment and computers, and often, networking connections. The sinks should be installed so that when the tables are drawn up to the counters there is enough space between the

Flexible lab/classroom with computer carts

tables for students to easily access the sinks. Gas jets, if used, are between the sinks.

A surface-mounted “raceway” may be installed above the counter’s backsplash to bring in electric power and data outlets at regular intervals along the counter.

Furnishings

The following describes the needs of a flexible laboratory/classroom with movable tables and perimeter counters, sinks and utilities. It also applies to laboratories and laboratory/classrooms with fixed workstations.
Sinks. Sinks for student investigations should be fairly wide and deep (380 x 380 mm [15 x 15 in]) with swiveling gooseneck faucets that allow students to fill and clean large containers. A good rule of thumb is to provide one sink for four students. Resin sinks are recommended because they resist chemical corrosion; however, stainless steel sinks may be an acceptable money-saving alternative in a room used only for programs such as physics, where the use of corrosive chemicals is minimal. Several sinks should be equipped with dual eyewashes.

All sinks should have hot and cold water. This minimizes the need for separate heating facilities in many investigations and improves student hygiene. Schools should be mindful of the maximum temperature for hot water and keep it safely below the scalding point.

Check state and local regulations for hazardous materials to see if special installations are needed. If the program calls for corrosive chemicals, supply the teacher’s sink with an acid dilution trap. This trap is filled with limestone chips that neutralize acid before it enters the regular waste-piping system. A more effective but more expensive method of dealing with corrosive wastes is with an acid-resistant piping system and central acid dilution tank.

Faucets should be equipped with aerators. Serrated nozzles adopted for the attachment of hoses are an option, but they increase the pressure of the water causing splattering. Some of these can be unscrewed, but teachers often respond by attaching a length of rubber hose to them to alleviate the problem.

It is also an advantage to have a large, deep sink with hot and cold water and

Deep resin sink with eyewash

adjacent counter space for various purposes such as cleaning large containers. Two very convenient specialty sinks to consider for the laboratory are:

• a “rinseaway” sink, which has a 1.8 to 3 m (6 to 10 ft) long molded fiberglass tray with raised edges that slopes down to a sink basin, facilitating the cleanup of plant and animal specimens. This tray accommodates investigations that need running water, a drain, and require long-term storage. The sink may be equipped with a garbage disposal or a plaster trap to catch sand or gravel. A pullout eyewash sprayer on a hose is useful for both safety and cleaning at the sink, but it cannot substitute for a dual eyewash.
• a deep, enameled-porcelain, wall-mounted janitor’s slop sink, which is very useful for cleaning large containers and filling deep vessels with water. Avoid the typical fixed faucet and opt for a swiveling gooseneck, because the fixed faucet reduces the open area of the bowl.

A "RinseAway" sink

Glassware drying racks come in various sizes and are often useful if installed above some or all of the perimeter sinks. Mount each rack so that it drains directly into the sink, rather than down the wall. Request a high backsplash, because the drying rack must be mounted high enough to clear the faucet. Some teachers find the fixed drying rack a waste of space and prefer a standard kitchen-counter drying rack that can be removed and stored beneath the sink when not in use.

Work space. For work space, counters 915 mm (36 in.) high and tables 760 mm (30 in.) High are convenient for most students. Countertops should be at least 610 mm (24 in.) deep. A counter depth of 760 mm (30 in.) will provide increased work space. Chairs or stools may be used for seating, but tall stools are not advisable, for safety reasons.

Countertops should be made of resin or a similar chemical-resistant material. They must be caulked using clear silicone between the backsplash and the wall and along any other joints. Standard backsplashes are 100 mm (4 in.) high. They should also run along the counter beside any tall cabinets, all fume hoods, and other surfaces that interrupt or are set into the countertop. Near water sources, always, always use one-piece countertops with backsplashes and no seams.

Flat-topped, movable tables 610 mm (24 in.) wide, 1370 mm (54 in.) long, and 760 mm (30 in.) high can be used for both classroom and laboratory work and may be pushed together to form larger surfaces. The tables should be large enough so two students can sit on one side. Allow at least 200 mm (8 in.) between the bottom of the table and the chair seat. Each student needs a knee space 610 mm wide or as close to it as possible. Most 1220 mm (48 in,) long resin-topped utility tables have knee space only 915 mm (36 in.) wide – not wide enough for two – because the legs at each end reduce the amount of space under the table.

These tables should have tops made of resin or a similar material and equipped with sockets for apparatus rods.

For durability, the best choice is an oak-framed utility table with a resin top. The connection between the leg and table frame is critical for the durability of these other-wise sturdy tables. Many manufacturers lag-bolt the leg to the frame, which often produced failures when the tables are moved around because the leg acts as a lever and pulls the bolt out. A better design bolts the leg to a steel plate set in the frame. In the strongest design, a bolt passing through the plate and leg is held in place with a nut and washer. Since these tables will be subject to a lot of abuse, the strongest table is worth the extra expense.

The resin tops come in white, super white, blush, gray, dark green, dark blue, brown and beige, but these tend to be about 20 percent more expensive than black. The lighter colors may brighten a dark room, but they are subject to discoloration by some of the dyes used in secondary courses.

Casework manufacturers have introduced tops made of of marble-like products similar to those used for kitchen countertops and vanities. These materials are expensive and may be stained by classroom chemicals; they do not have the history of proven chemical resistance that resin has.

Many teachers prefer to use a movable table because they feel that a fixed table at the front of the room separates them from the students and interferes with students’ access to the board. A mobile teacher’s table can have base cabinets, drawers, knee space, and its own water, gas and electrical service.

For safety reasons, workstations for chemistry classes and specialized chemistry laboratories should be at standing height and all stools and chairs should be removed. Biology classes require seating for microscope work.

Physics teachers need a clear work surface at least 1.8 m long for equipment such as air tracks. Many standard designs for science casework should be specified as needed.

Physics teachers aso like long, flat tables with apparatus rods clamped to the edges or fitted into sockets recessed into the top. C-clamp apparatus rods have limited clamp depth and can be used only with tabletops no more than 30 mm (1 ½ in.) thick. Fixed rod sockets should be specified only in cases where they are essential, because they limit flexibility and interrupt the smooth surface of a tabletop making it difficult for students to take notes.

Storage. It is desirable to provide base cabinets and countertops along at least two walls for storage and additional work space. High-quality cabinets, such as those made of marine-grade plywood with plastic laminate fronts, should be a priority. Avoid particleboard assembly for casework because this material is affected by moisture.

Every room needs several types of base cabinets. Consider units with drawers of various sizes, drawer and door units with adjustable shelves, and tote-tray cabinets that allow the teacher to store all items for a class or activity in one bin. Tote-tray cabinets are also useful for storing student laboratory kits that can be brought out at laboratory time and make-up work.

Wall cabinets are typically either 305 mm (12 in.) or 380 mm (15 in.) deep, and should be mounted about 460 mm (18 in.) above the countertop. Bookshelves should be at least 255 mm (10 in.) deep and adjustable to different heights.

Cabinets of various heights and depths are needed for specialized storage of items such as rock and mineral samples for Earth science; a skeleton on a rolling stand, microscopes, and glassware for biology and life science, and stands for aquariums, terrariums, and plants. Physical science makes extensive use of materials and equipment of varying sizes, types and weights.

Allow floor space in the classroom for use of equipment such as laboratory carts, computer carts, an animal cage, and a stream table. It is also important to provide storage for students coats and book bags to keep these items out of the way during lab work.

Display space. Chalkboards, marker boards, and tack boards are hung at roughtly counter height. Dry erase marker boards are often used in place of chalkboards because chalk dust can be harmful to computers and people. However, there is also concern about the toxicity of the permanent markers and manufacturers’ information should be studied. Sliding, multiple-panel

Sliding panel markerboards with shelving behind

boards can be used to extend a marker board without requiring more wall space.

The instructional focus area may support a variety of presentation formats, including video, laser disc, slides, projected microscope images, and overhead projection. Since a movable teacher’s demonstration table is frequently used, controls, including light dimmers, can be installed in a wall panel easily accessible to the teacher.

Provisions should be made for suspending objects from the ceiling. Tracks with sliding hooks can replace the standard “T-bar” grid of pipes and provide a variety of places for hanging various teaching aids and models. The suspension system for this grid must be much stronger than the typical ceiling grid. A less sophisticated solution is to suspend several 25 mm (1 in.) diameter steel pipes beneath the ceiling using standard pipe clamps, and then to tie or clamp the items to these pipes. The pipes must be suspended from a suitable structure, such as joists from the floor above. The hooks should have at least a 23 kg (50 lb.) Capacity, and each pipe should hold at least 90 kg (200 lb). It is advisable to over-design the suspension system.

Utilities. Classrooms will need plenty of duplex electrical outlets carrying standard household current on separate circuits to avoid overload, all with ground-fault interrupters (GFIs) for safety. Analyze the equipment that will be used to determine if any higher voltages are needed. DC power can be provided by small cells, not automotive storage batteries, or by portable units that plug into AC outlets and are protected by circuit breakers.

To ensure future flexibility for the science program, all classrooms should have wiring with multiple outlets for voice, video, and data network connections. Many schools are using fiberoptic cable for long hallway runs, but most still use copper wire in classrooms. Two-way voice communication between every classroom and the office is essential.

Science rooms need power and data lines at each student workstation. It is never safe to run wires or conduits across a classroom floor to provide power to workstations or equipment in the center of the room. However, there are several ways to provide electric power to these locations:

• Pull-down electric cords, similar to those in automotive shops. These can be arranged as multiple outlets and equipped with computer network outlets. The primary drawbacks of this system are the dangling overhead wires and the tendency of the retractors to pull the cords back quickly, damaging ceiling tiles.
• Power poles, like those popular in open offices. These provide a more permanent arrangement. The primary drawbacks of this system are a lack of flexibility because the poles cannot be moved easily and the relatively fragile nature of the pole systems which are not designed for the type of abuse possible in a classroom.
• Recessed floor boxes that have lids with rotating “wire-management blocks” that open to allow wires to pass through and close when not in use. These boxes contain several power and network-connection outlets. The electrical outlets in the boxes should be raised above the bottom of the floor box to provide additional protection from any spills in that area of the floor. A model is available that holds the outlets vertically, away from the opening of the floor box. Floor boxes should not be located near safety showers or in areas where water and chemicals are used.

Do not use the old tombstone-type floor outlets that are fixed and stick up above the floor because these are tripping hazards and greatly reduce the flexibility of the room. Also avoid floor outlets flush with the floor or hinged brass cover plates that can break off easily, exposing the outlet to dirt and spills.

Extra care should be taken to investigate the pros and cons with respect to safety of each alternative, especially the floor boxes, and to ensure that everyone, including the custodial staff, is informed of procedures for the safe use of the floor boxes.

Gas is used less often than in the past because it is expensive and requires particular caution and diligence. It is primarily used in chemistry. If the science program requires its use, gas should be installed at the perimeter, near the sinks. When gas is provided by a central system, an emergency shut-off valve, activated by pushing a highly visible button, is needed. A central control valve that enables the teacher to shut off the gas in the room is useful.

Emergency shut-off controls for water, electrical service, and gas should be near the teacher’s station, not far from the door, and not easily accessible to students.

Distilled water is used almost daily in high school science, and most schools build in their own still system. Remember to provide storage space for these units in a preparation or storage room.

Fume hoods are used in certain physical science, chemistry, and life science classes and are required in laboratories where hazardous or vaporous chemicals are used. Either a trifacial fume hood or two fume hoods are needed for advanced chemistry classes.

Computers

The use of computers in high school science classrooms is growing. It is advisable to provide space and GFI-protected electrical power for as many computers as possible in a room. In designing new construction, one duplex power and data outlet for every four students is a good ration to use. A class of 24 students will need at least six computer docking stations with connection points to the school’s and the district’s computer network. Provide one dedicated 20 amp duplex electrical circuit for every three computers. A desktop computer station, whether mounted on a cart or permanently mounted on a counter, takes about 1.4 m2 (15 ft2) of space.

The location of computer stations depends on the nature of the classroom. Computers should be stationed as far away from chalkboards and sources of water as possible. Desktop computers are often mounted on rolling carts that can be docked at wall stations or moved to any part of the room.

When planning space for the computer carts next to the various table configurations, allow space for the length of the cart, seating at the cart, and clear passage behind the seating. The depth of the docking space should be roughly 1.5 m (5 ft), to accommodate the cart and allow 0.9 m (3 ft) or more of clearance for a seated student. The aisle behind the seated student should be at least 1.5 m wide, to allow free movement behind the cart.

If computers are to be installed at permanent locations, provide counter space no higher than 810 mm (32 in), with knee space beneath. If the power outlet is beneath the counter or a tower unit is being used, leave a 50 mm (2 in,) diameter hole with a rubber grommet in the countertop for the wire connections. Do not mount computers near sinks for two reasons: the most

Laptop computers in recharging storage cart

obvious reason is that computers can be damaged by water. The other is that standard countertops are too high for comfortable computer use.

In response to continued reductions in the prices of laptop computers, many schools are moving toward their use, installing the appropriate wiring and connecting them to the network. The laptops can be locked in the storage room for security and recharging and to avoid the risk of accidental exposure to water or chemicals during laboratory investigations. These laptops will need network cards recognized by the school’s file server. The room would also benefit from having a high-speed printer for reproducing student reports using the laptops.

†—NSTA Pathways to the Science Standards, High School Edition, 1996, by James T. Biehle, LaMoine L. Motz and Sandra S. West

This article originally appeared in The Construction Specifier in October 1999.

A student team working with a computer

a science teacher design a science learning facility that will be a safe and efficient learning environment? These frequently asked questions demonstrate that science teachers are concerned and conscientious when it comes to safety in their classrooms and laboratories. Due to the basic nature of science, science classrooms and laboratories are among the most hazardous instructional areas in the school environment, so safety for those who will be using the facilities should be a prominent concern for facility planners. The planning team should give specific attention not only to the design of the facilities but also to the establishment of emergency procedures.

Potential for Litigation
The link between science facilities and the legal arena has a long and unfortunate history. In one Texas science classroom, students were working quietly when one student bumped the elbow of an adjacent student who was holding a compass, and the point penetrated the student’s eyelid. The accident happened because students simply did not have sufficient “elbow room” to work safely. Because the science class was held in an existing science room, the only viable safety accommodation was to decrease the maximum class size for any one class assigned to that room. Although no litigation resulted from the accident, the potential for a court finding of negligence by the school was significant. It is important that planning teams and designers be well informed about the research base regarding such accidents. Newspapers often cite accidents in school

Students doing hands-on science

classrooms because the accident rate in schools is 10–50 times higher than in the chemical industry (Wood, 1995). Looking beyond the headlines, research reveals the factors that contribute to accidents—lack of adequate working space, teachers without adequate course work preparation, teachers with more than two preparations, poor school discipline, lack of safety measures, and inadequate training.

One key point in school safety litigation is whether “reasonable effort” has been made to provide a safe environment for teachers and students. Reasonable effort means that it is not necessary to use a worst-case scenario for every design. For example, we would not eliminate electrical outlets from a design just because a student could stick a piece of metal in one, but we would place all outlets in appropriate locations, use appropriate circuit breakers, and avoid stray lines.

Defined as “conduct that falls below a standard of care established by law to protect others against an unreasonable risk of harm,” negligence is a common factor in lawsuits. Educators are expected to minimize risks and make reasonable decisions.

Examples of negligence for which lawsuits have been brought include the following:

• Malfeasance, or forcing employees or students to assume unnecessary risk, such as asking students to move chemicals from room to room or requiring teachers to work in unventilated spaces that violate federal, state, or local standards. Litigation focuses on working environments made unsafe by inadequate space, poor ventilation, insufficient supervision of students, a lack of personal protection equipment such as eyewashes and showers, or lack of separate and secure chemical storage.
• Nonfeasance, or failure on the part of school authorities to do what should be done, such as provide adequate facilities or alter the curriculum when facilities are inadequate. In one case, a 14-year-old girl was badly burned while carrying alcohol to light burners in a classroom that was not equipped for laboratory work. The court found against the teacher for inappropriate supervision and against the principal for scheduling the science class in a room with improper and inappropriate facilities (Bush v. Oscoda Area Schools, 1981).

In another case, a Texas chemistry teacher was working alone after school preparing chemicals for the next day’s class. She was seriously injured when she dropped a bottle of concentrated sulfuric acid, slipped in the acid, and fell backwards onto a large piece of glass. In addition to the acid burns, she suffered a long and deep cut in her back. She called for help and a colleague carried her to the nearest shower in the girl’s gym. The lack of a safety shower in the chemistry laboratory was a clear violation of all safety recommendations. The court found that the school had not made a reasonable effort to provide a safe working environment for the science teacher or students (Lubbuck Avalanche Journal, 1989).

The potential for successful lawsuits increases when the district fails to take advantage of opportunities to design and build better facilities. Because no facility can be completely accident-proof, the key is best practice. School districts and planning teams should learn from the recommendations of professionals—reviewing the research base, reading professional publications, and consulting expert school architects can all help planners make good decisions. Above all, the principles of appropriate and safe instructional space design should be the basis of the budgeting and planning processes.

Space: The Final Frontier
When discussing safe facilities, the first and most easily calculated factor is space. Providing adequate space makes sense, and research has provided abundant evidence that it reduces accidents. Research has shown that the number of accidents in school science laboratories increases significantly when the space per student is less than 41 square feet (Young, 1972).

When planning new science classrooms, committees need to remember that class size and space are inversely proportional—as the number of students in the class increases, the square footage of working space per student decreases. Crowded classrooms prevent students from moving away from hazards quickly and teachers from moving around to supervise. Planners must also consider the number of workstations available to students. If a lab has only 20 stations, or a chemistry lab has only 4 sinks or gas outlets, the number of students that can function safely is limited by that facility.

The National Science Teachers Association and the National Science Educational Leadership Association adopted a position statement entitled “Working Conditions for Secondary Classroom Teachers.” This document states that “because of safety considerations and the individual attention needed by students in laboratories, science classes should be limited to 24 students, unless a team of teachers is available” (Biehle, 1999, 30).

The most important aspects of school science facility design are sufficient space and proper arrangement of that space. Most existing science classrooms designed and constructed before the advent of personal computers and the passage of the Americans With Disabilities Act are equipped with fixed laboratory tables. As many classrooms were designed with a 24-foot maximum distance from the corridor wall to the exterior wall, these tables tend to be fairly close together with a 2-foot aisle space between the ends of the tables. Further, to maximize the number of student workstations, the space between rows of fixed tables often has been minimized, in some cases to approximately 3 feet. Science students are not always as careful as they should be and sometimes swing around and bump into other students, causing spills. Narrow aisles between lab tables increase the possibility of such an accident and long, continuous lab tables can make it difficult for a teacher to reach a student who needs emergency assistance.

Older labs also tend to have raised utility racks running down the center of the lab bench that reduce the ability of the teacher to visually supervise the students. NSTA recommends specific minimum areas for science learning spaces with a maximum of 24 students in a laboratory or lab/classroom (Figure 1).

Arrangement
Current science curricula suggest that flexible space with utilities and fixed lab benches on the perimeter of the space will best serve most students. Designing a laboratory area with fingers or banjo-shaped tables protruding from a perimeter countertop requires a lot of space and significantly reduces the flexibility of a space while at the same time increases the safety hazard of working in the space. Dead-ends that are created with fingers or banjos can trap students in an emergency or prevent the teacher from aiding a student in distress.

Another common design that requires even more space and is equally difficult to supervise is a barbell arrangement with round or octagonal tables connected by one or more rectangular isthmuses.

Rooms designed with perimeter counter space and movable tables with sufficient circulation space, on the other hand, can provide one of the safest laboratory environments. However, no one design is perfect, and the drawbacks of each must be considered. Several designs work well if there is sufficient space and the rooms are not overcrowded (Biehle et al, 1999).

Specialized science courses such as chemistry and physics require distinct classroom features such as additional fume hoods and longer lab stations for air track activities. The uniqueness of these specialized courses requires more than the generic flexible design can provide. Chemistry instruction, for example, regularly requires the use of gas as a hot flame source, so flame sources such as alcohol burners that provide cooler flames are inadequate.

Chemistry also requires a large volume of gas for a full year of chemistry investigations. Propane tanks are insufficient to meet this need; therefore, we recommend that all chemistry laboratories be constructed with natural gas utilities.

Physics instruction requires more horizontal work surface than other disciplines for investigations on topics such as light, motion, and waves. Additionally, air track activities require six continuous linear feet of surface space. Storage for physics equipment requires larger individual storage spaces for large pieces of equipment such as a bicycle wheel gyroscope, robotic devices, and a wave motion apparatus.

Storage Space
Separate chemical storerooms that are secure and well ventilated are frequently not included by planners. The safe use, storage, and disposal of hazardous chemicals are required either by federal or state standards. These standards usually include extensive training requirements, proper

Housekeeping is an important safety issue

labeling of chemicals, and personal protective equipment such as dual eyewashes, showers, goggles, and aprons, all of which must be incorporated in the design of facilities. Safe storage of chemicals requires a dedicated room separate from the prep and equipment storage room. As a rule, approximately 1 square foot of space per student is needed for the chemical storeroom. For example, if the chemical storeroom services two laboratories, each with 24 students, the chemical storeroom should be approximately 50 square feet. No chemicals should ever be stored in the classroom or laboratory. Most accidents documented in newspaper stories involve students stealing chemicals. Therefore, chemicals should be stored in a room that is not accessible to students. Secure chemical storage means that the storage area is not accessible from the ceiling or ductwork. Additionally, lab benches that have separate lockable drawers for students are expensive and are more of a hazard than a benefit. Students can store dangerous materials in them, and separate storage spaces take a great deal of time to search in an emergency. A better alternative is to have lab stations with large lockable storage drawers for teacher use, or no storage areas at all.

At minimum, a student laboratory station or working area should provide 9 square feet of horizontal surface, a 15-inch by 15-inch sink, and water and electrical utilities. Adequate prep and equipment storage rooms greatly enhance science learning. NSTA recommends approximately 9–10 square feet per student of prep/equipment storage area. Supervision (and therefore, safety) of these spaces can be greatly enhanced by view windows between the classroom and the prep room or student project space. Separate entries from the corridor to these spaces should also be provided so that individuals needing access do not disrupt classes in adjacent teaching spaces. Alcoves, extreme rectangular, and non-rectangular (such as round) spaces should be avoided in the layout of a science facility, because these designs create areas that may be difficult for teachers to supervise.

Special Considerations
The use of computers in science presents a space problem; if a desktop computer is placed on a lab bench, it takes up approximately 6 square feet of counter space (including the monitor, keyboard and mouse). As most labs were designed with minimal counter space per student, adding a computer further restricts the surface area available for investigations. One solution is to place the computer on a rolling cart that can be docked at a perimeter wall when not in use and wheeled to the lab bench when needed. A computer and cart can take up at least 6 square feet of floor space, not counting the area needed for a person to stand or sit while using the computer. With the narrow aisles of most existing science classrooms, placing a computer on a cart near student work stations can drastically reduce available circulation space and create an obstruction in case of an accident.

The smaller laptop computers are currently more expensive than desktop

Laptops and a wireless network allow flexibility

computers, but they take up less space and offer more mobility both inside the laboratory and during outside field investigations.
Students in wheelchairs need significant amounts of circulation space to maneuver within a science classroom. The Americans With Disabilities Act (1991) requires schools to provide equivalent experiences for students with disabilities, a term which means that disabled students must be able to participate as fully as possible in the entire learning experience, including labortory work. Therefore, at least one student workstation must be accessible to disabled students; the workstation should have a lower counter and sink height, controls that do not require twisting, and enough space at and around the workstation to maneuver a wheelchair.

Further, if the classroom has specialized equipment such as an eyewash, that equipment must also be accessible to a disabled student. To provide aisle space between tables and at the perimeter for wheelchair passage (a minimum of 32 inches of clearance), classrooms must be designed appropriately.
Other typical safety hazards include obstructed safety showers or eyewash stations within the classroom.
Often these are located in corners, behind other casework, or may be obstructed by furniture. Teachers should avoid safety center units that some casework manufacturers sell that have closed base cabinets, making a headon approach by a person in a wheelchair impossible.

Safety shower/eyewash units should be located near the door to the corridor with enough space on either side to keep the eyewash handle from being accidentally activated by students passing by. The eyewash portion should not have casework beneath it and should be lowered so that the wash jets are 32–34 inches above the floor. Shower handles should be lengthened to not more than 54 inches above the floor.

In summary, safe school science facilities are not difficult to design when properly researched and planned. However, this planning requires a long-term commitment by state agencies, school district boards and administrators, architects, and science teachers to continually update their knowledge. Often it is the science teacher who is expected to be the expert and who has the additional responsibility of either developing a sufficient knowledge base or identifying valid resources that provide recommendations for existing or new facilities. Although existing facilities are severely limited in terms of making significant physical changes, there are safety accommodations that can be made: decreasing class size, adding personal protection equipment such as eyewashes and fume hoods, and providing separate, ventilated chemical storerooms. For either new or renovation construction, it is imperative that tax monies are efficiently spent on designs that ensure a science facility that not only allows but encourages safe and effective science instruction.

Sandra S. West is an associate professor of biology at Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas 78666-4616; e-mail: swO4@swt.edu; LaMoine L. Motz is the science coordinator at Oakland Schools, 2100 Pontiac Lake Road, Waterford, MI 48328; e-mail: LaMoine.Motz@oakland.kl2.mi.us; and James T. Biehle is the president of Inside/Out Architecture, Inc., 127 West Clinton Place, Kirkwood, MO 63122, contact.

References
Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities. 1991. Federal Register 56(144).
Bush v. Oscoda Area Schools. 1981.109 Mich. App.373, 311 N.W.2d 788 (Mich. App. 1981).
Biehle, J. T., L. L. Motz, and S. S. West. 1999. NSTA Guide to School Science Facilities. Arlington, Va.: National Science Teachers Association.
Teacher falling into acid. 1989. Lubbock Avalanche Journal, March 3. 4C.
National Science Teachers Association. 1998. Laboratory Science (1990 position statement). In NSTA Handbook. Arlington, Va.: National Science Teachers Association.
National Science Teachers Association. 1998. Working Conditions for Secondary Classroom Teachers (1990 position statement). In NSTA Handbook. Arlington, Va.: National Science
Teachers Association.
Wood, D. G. 1995. Safety in School Science Labs.
Young, J. R. 1972. A second survey of safety in Illinois high school laboratories. Journal of Chemical Education 49(l): 55.

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Making the act work

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is an evolving process; its impact on schools continues to be felt. There is nothing in the “ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities” (ADAAG) or in the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards that specifically relates to science facilities. Thus, specific applications require judgment on the part of the facility planner. In the case of Westmount High School, although access to the science facilities is made easy, use of various equipment is not. For instance, fume hoods are major pieces of lab equipment that must be made accessible to the disabled. Many equipment manufacturers produce hoods that allow frontal approach in a wheelchair, and that have controls located within adequate reach range. In addition, care must be taken to protect the wheelchair user

Accessible Fume Hood

against contact with hot water and drain pipes beneath the hood, and fume hood doors must be operable within specific reach ranges and require a maximum operating force of 5 lbf (foot pound). Westmount’s labs have fixed benches that have significantly more space between them for circulation of wheelchairs and to permit people to pass or stand behind wheelchair users while they are at the workstation. This extra space allows students like Sarah to easily participate in most of the class activities, making her chemistry learning experience more valuable. Sarah’s wheelchair requires a minimum of 32 inches for passage at a point and 36 inches continuously along a path of travel. Areas also have been provided on the perimeter to allow her to turn her wheelchair around, typically a 60-inch diameter circular space or a T-shaped space of 60 inches overall. A specially-designed laboratory station has been integrated into the classroom as part of the lab configuration to allow wheelchair users to participate fully in student groupings and projects. Where student laboratory stations are fixed or built-in, at least 5 percent of the stations (but not less than one) must be accessible. The top of the accessible lab station should be between 28 inches and 34 inches above the floor (at least 2 inches lower than the 36-inch standard of most “off-the-shelf” lab stations). With the increased use of computers in the classroom, tables and countertops in new schools may be lower in general practice, as the ideal height for a computer table is 26 inches to 30 inches. Clear knee space must be provided that is at least 27 inches high, 30 inches wide and 19 inches deep, and the 30-inch by 40 inch clear floor space for a wheelchair cannot overlap the knee space by more than 19 inches.